A500.7.3.RB_MilliganSteven

Quantitative Research Methods

There are several main elements within quantitative research that I will be discussing in today's blog article.  I will be following the presentation "Quantitative Research Methods" by Tero Mamia.  In the presentation there are a list of topics I will be using that will help me to break down and more clearly summarize the key points of quantitative research.  These topics are: the quantitative method,observation units and variable, the research process, elements of research design and processes, strengths and weaknesses, and sampling. (Mamia, 2006)

When dealing in the world of research there are two types of research; qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative seeks to understand the "why" whereas, quantitative seeks to answer the "how".  It is in the latter form I am most interested in today.  Both forms are looking to explain reality. They happen to focus on different parts of the answer and both are very useful.  Quantitative research is essentially based on the idea that the world can be explained and questions can be answered through numbers.  A question may focus on how many people participate in a particle activity or how many cars break down due to cold weather in a particle area.  These are examples of quantitative questions.  The data then is the number given to answer that question.  These are then turned into a data table or matrix.  This begins the researchers analysis of the answers obtained and the path to a better understanding of the answers to the questions posed.  When understanding quantitative data there are two parts; variable and the observation unit.  The variable is a "observable and measurable characteristic of an observation unit, which varies across different units" (Mamia, 2006)  while the observation unit is the group or people that are being observed for the purposes of the study.  Essentially the variable may change and the observable unit does not change.  A person (observable unit) may be watched to see how many times they do a particular thing in different situations (variable).

Obviously when using quantitative study methods there are going to be strengths and weaknesses to doing this.  Quantitative research enables researchers to analyze specific social structures and processes that may otherwise be difficult to observe.  They can put the data in easy to read, factual forms.  They can take something that is happening all over the world and break it down into numbers and readable data. Unfortunately the weaknesses of this method specifically develops because of its strengths.  Because of the simplicity of the data it makes it impossible to understand the true complexity of the situation.  If you look at the number of murders in New York City in 2012 you will find that there were 419 murders.(nyc.gov, 2013) These give an overall number of murders that took place but not the reasons behind them, whether they were accidental or on purpose or discussing the lives effected by the murders.  This, however, is not the purpose of quantitative research so although it can be considered a weakness the strength still lies in the simplicity of the numbers.

When beginning a quantitative research study it is important to understand that there are 12 steps in the research process.  These steps in order are as follows: Research idea, literature review, theoretical formulation of the research problem, empirical research questions, research design, data collection, data analysis, answering the empirical research questions, theoretical interpretation of the results, comparison with earlier research and conclusions.  When beginning research you will go through a variety of steps.  These including selecting the topic, searching out previous research on the topic (why do the work when someone else already has), select the approach (quantitative or qualitative), ask the questions that enable you to perform the research followed by how you will obtain the data (surveys, sampling, observation).

A key factor in any study is to have a good research design.  How will you perform the study? How will you collect the data?  Will you compare the data to other theories of research?  What target populations will you focus your study on? These are all important elements needed when performing the research and need to be answered before the research begins.

A common method of selecting units for the study is through a method called sampling.  When a question being asked pertains to a large population it may be impossible to ask the entire encompassing group, so a much smaller, random selection will be made.  If a population area of 10,000 people is being studied a smaller group of 500 people may be asked a question and the data can be analyzed to show the probability of more people acting the way those 500 people did.  When deciding what shows to cancel the Nielsen ratings are used. These sample a group of people in the United States and the numbers are applied to a larger population. If 50 out of a thousand watch a show the odds are the percentage won't be much greater if the sample is larger and the show runs the risk of being cancelled.

Quantitative studies are used frequently to come to a better understanding of what and how often things happen around us.  When properly organized and thoroughly and appropriately used, quantitative studies are highly effective in learning more about the world around us.

References

Mamia, T. (2006). Quantitative Research Methods.

nyc.gov. (2013). Retrieved from nyc.gov: http://www.nyc.gov/html/nypd/downloads/pdf/analysis_and_planning/murder_in_nyc_2012.pdf

A500.6.3.RB_MilliganSteven

Qualitative research is essentially the process of looking for meaning and understanding to problems and information not recorded by means of statistical data.  This can mean that the data received can be any number of things and is often up to the researcher to define the value of the data.  Researchers, when searching for qualitative data frequently look to be enlightened by the questions they are asking and not necessarily the number or statistics provided by the data.  Qualitative research is often referred to as naturalistic research, focusing on the quality of data rather than numbers.  According to many researchers there are a number of items needed to be considered qualitative research.  These include observing in the natural setting.  This gives the researchers the opportunity to see behavior in an unaltered state.  An example of this type of research comes from Diane Fossey.  In 1963 Fossey went on a seven-week safari to study Mountain Gorillas in their natural habitat.  Over time she was even accepted by the gorillas as an observer and grew to develop relationships with them.  The next characteristic is that the researcher is the "human element" that collects the data.  This means that the researcher is the one collecting and interpreting the data.  This is not left up to machines or counter, but the researchers themselves.

 Qualitative researchers generally use inductive data analyses.  This is an in depth analyses of the information and can be very time consuming, focusing on the properties of the information rather than quantitative data.  When performing inductive research the researchers are looking for the critical themes that exist within the data.  They also include descriptive research reports  that use expressive language in the explanations.  This form of research involves an interpreter.  One of the most difficult things about qualitative research is that the data is meant to be interpreted by a researcher.  This person needs to analyze the data and discover the relevance and meaning behind it.  They look at the cases from their own viewpoint and study the data based on the uniqueness of each study.  Each and every case will flow differently.  It has what is called an “emergent design”, meaning that what will take place is not predetermined.  Just like in the case with Diane Fossey.  Her only goal was to study the lives and habits of Mountain Gorillas.  What happened during each study was up to the gorillas.

Once a researcher knows he/she wants to perform qualitative rather than quantitative research they then decide on two forms of collecting data.  These are interviews and observation.  The distinctions between the two are simple and work exactly as they sound.  This does not necessarily mean that the two need to be completely separate.  One can be an observer and still perform interviews and vice versa.  When interviewing subjects the questions need to be open ended allowing the individuals answers to be unique and personal.  When collecting the answers or data in the interviews the two methods that can be used are either writing the answers down or recording them.  It seems that this is up to the researcher and the opinions of professionals tend to vary. 

Observing subjects in the field is the more classic approach.  The researcher will take note of the surroundings and environment in order to give context to what is taking place and what the person being observed is doing.  This is important because in nature we tend to communicate in a number of different ways and understanding the surrounds and how we communicate will help the researcher understand the “why” of what is going on.  If as an observer you state that you saw two people fighting at work over something tedious you may suggest that they are impatient and rude people.  For example, once you include the context of stress, lack of sleep, personal lives, that air conditioning at work broke and the boss is breathing down both their necks it will completely change the data and the understanding the observer has of the situation.  Although observing in the natural environment is a good way to gather information the observer needs to understand that the presence and knowledge that the observer exists will in itself change the data.  Those being observed may react differently when being watched than when they are alone. 

When analyzing data themes need to first be identified, this is called “open coding”.  This is where the researchers identifies the different themes found within the research and names them.  These become categories and will hopefully be descriptive enough to provide a good framework to analyze the data.  After doing this the data must be broken down into manageable sections that can then be separated out.  The next state in analyzing data involves what is known as “axial coding”.  This is when researchers determine how the categories discovered in the data are connected.  Each category is compared in new ways enabling the researching to develop better overall understanding of the data.  After all this is done it needs to be translated into a report that will be comprehensible by others.

When the research has been finished, the report written and finally in the hands of those that will read it, it must then be judged.  For the reader or “judge”, this can be a delicate matter and requires them to think creatively.  Essentially the quality of the research and data is in the eye of the beholder.  It is up to the reader to determine its validity.  The question becomes, how is this done?  The reader must follow three distinct features.  According to the article, Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology Education Researchers, by Marie C. Hoepfl, these are "Coherence, Consensus and Instrumental Utility". (Hoepfl, 1997)  Coherence is whether or not the story makes sense and are the conclusions being supported?  Consensus is whether or not the readers concur with the findings and if they are consistent with their own experiences.  Instrumental Utility is the testing the usefulness of the study.  Does the study help us to understand a problem or situation?    

When these guidelines are followed qualitative research can help us to understand the “why” of many of life’s questions.  We can look and watch and learn why people do things and why the world works the way it does.  Suddenly many of life’s questions wrapped in enigmas smothered in riddles are peeled back just a little bit and we are able to see all of the ingredients that make them what they are.                                                                                                                                                                                                   References                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   Fossey, D. Gorillas in the Mist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983.

Hoepfl, M. C. (1997). Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology Education Researchers . Journal of Technology Education                                                                                       

A500.5.3.RB_MilliganSteven

Critical Thinking about Critical Thinking

Over the last several weeks I have tried to examine the way I reason and think through things.  Having learned about the Elements and Standards of Reasoning it is amazing how much I have changed the way I think through problems, issues and daily dilemmas that I run in to.  I think many times in life we go through these processes of reasoning without even realizing it.  However we may skip over some of these or not spend enough time on certain ones before we move on to the next.  We may have an issue but not have a good understanding of what the actual problem is or think that our goal is one thing when it should actually be another.  These elements have enabled me to slow down my thought process and focus on certain aspects that I may feel I don't fully understand yet.  Whether this is spending more time examining the implications or consequences, the data and facts or even coming to a better understanding of the actual concept.  I focus a great deal more on these processes then I did before I started this course.  Sometimes this means spending more time thinking about the possible solutions.  When going through the Elements its important to not forget the standards.  This may mean I needing to clarify the problem all the way or question the significance, it is important to include these while reasoning out a situation.  Since reading about these I have actually printed them off and posted them at work.  When listening to problems or trying to figure out a solution to something it has helped me a great deal to keep this in mind and has afforded me to be much more thorough when working on solutions.

The goal I have is to incorporate this into my daily life.  While it doesn't seem like it will be that difficult to remembers these things, especially when they are posted on my wall at work, it is, however, difficult to force myself to be thorough.  This is especially the case when I am attempting to multitask and am distracted by fifteen different things.  When attempting to combine school, family life, work, church and other duties, focusing on these seemingly small problems can feel like a daunting task.  Often times these are problems brought to me by people that I have been appointed a leader over and I sometimes forget completely about the issue.  It is up to me to not allow that to happen and remember that I was put there for a reason and that I need to remember that the situations that I often forget about are very important to those around me.  I need to take them as seriously as if I were the other person.  I have attempted to help myself do this by keeping notes and tasks written down in a notepad.  This helps me to remember the things that my mind would otherwise have wiped away to make room for all the other things that I need to keep in my throughout the day.  I have especially learned that there is often more than one way to "skin a cat" or solve problems.  Understanding this and not settling on the first idea that comes to mind has increased the amount of time I spend on a problem.  If I am working with others this standard is helpful because I quickly learn that my ideas are not always the most effective and others have different insight that can bring other solutions to the table.  This requires a level of creativity that I do not naturally excel at and am happy to be learning and practicing it in my daily life now.

I feel that I can incorporate both the Elements and Standards of Reasoning into my daily life and in turn improve my critical thinking abilities.  The hard part is how much they will permeate my day to day life.  In the end this just means that I need to put a good amount of effort into this until it becomes more like a second nature rather than a daunting task.  Hopefully by doing this my decisions will be more informed and have better outcomes thereby increasing my desire to keep up the processes.  Keeping this things visually around me so I can see and remember both the Elements and Standards of reasoning and continue to remember that there is "more than one way to skin a cat" helps me to be more creative and to ask others for advice and their points of view.

A500.4.3.RB_MilliganSteven

Ballet Slippers or Adorable

When one brings up the topic of choice it seems to me that choice is a fairly relative term.  What choice we have is based on our life circumstances, money, location, occupation and a great deal of many other influences.  This leads me to believe that some choice is no more than an illusion.  If I look at the choice of soda out there.  In my mind as an American there are hundreds of different flavors and choices of soda.  Cola alone has many options from Coke to Diet Coke to Pepsi to Diet Pepsi, Pepsi 10, Coke Zero, Pepsi Max, Pepsi Next to the various options of store brands and so on.  Only a few years ago we were limited to Coke, Diet Coke, Pepsi and Diet Pepsi.  If this was the case does the new plethora of options mean we have more choices or does it just mean we now have the illusion of choice?  Are we essentially choosing a variety of essentially the same thing?  This leads me to believe that more options does not necessarily mean better choices, it only means more choices.  Is Coke Zero really better than Diet Coke or does it just give me another choice in a world full of them.

I am a person of research.  When looking to purchase an item I like to understand exactly what it is I am buying and get the best quality for the best value.  When searching for a digital point and shoot camera it took me several years to buy one due to the fact that I had done so much research and realized that everything I wanted in a camera I could not find in only one camera.  At the time one camera had hd video while the other got higher picture ratings and another had more settings options and the last had wifi built in.  I wanted all of these for the price I was willing to spend.  Had I not done all this research and realized the plethora of choices out there I probably would have just driven to my local Best Buy, found a camera I liked for the price I like and purchased it.  Due to my research and realization of choices I then could not decide and simply gave up losing several years worth of quality photos and videos I could have taken.  What then was the problem? Was it the number of choices I had or my inability to decide? This is something that still plagues me and on occasion when trying to decide on an expensive purchase I will turn to my wife and make the statement, "ignorance is bliss".  By this I mean if I didn't know about all the choices out there life would be so much easier and I could decide what I wanted much more quickly.

In any case I believe that although more choices does not necessarily mean better choices it does mean that we still have a choice.  In my opinion no choice is more often a bad thing than it is a good thing.  When looking at internet or cable companies no choice in who your provider is leads to high prices and poor service.  For two years I lived in a very poor part of the Philippines.  People in this country had very little choice due to economic circumstances.  Many could only choose from a few options for food, entertainment or transportation.  They often have no choice of where they go to school, if they want a higher education or where they would like to work.  This lack of choice leads to a lack of life style choices.  This however does not necessarily mean they are unhappy.  I found that many Filipinos are happier than many rich Americans that have a slew of choices.

What then does this mean for leadership? I've learned that choice only goes so far and that sometimes choice is not necessarily a good thing, although people do always have a choice.  They can choose to do what their leadership says or ignore it and face the consequences.  I've learned if I ask for volunteers or ask people to do something they are generally much more willing to do what I ask.  However, I am mostly dealing with people that are themselves in leadership positions and are seasoned military veterans.  Most of these people do what is asked of them without a push and even volunteer to do more then they are asked.  I have found that many times choice is a good thing as long as there is not too much of it.  Its when you give the option for unnecessary choices is that problems arise.  When my wife asks my what I would like for dinner and gives me too many choices I quickly give up and tell her to decide.  It only recently dawned on me that she may be doing this on purpose.  She is giving me the illusion of choice only to get me to tell her to decide for me. Much like the choice of what shade of pink nail polish, sometimes this is just an illusion.  In the end I feel that for the most part I agree with Dr. Lyengar.  Choice over no choice is always the better option, however, I feel that choice can be taken to the extreme and then becomes a disservice to those that are making the choice.  The choices almost become impossible.